Words

This is Unit Ten of College Composition. Unit Nine finished the conventions of the page. This unit closes the conventions block with the smallest choice a writer makes, the single word. Carry one idea through this lecture. The right word fits its meaning, its feeling and its reader, and diction errors come in three kinds: wrong words, empty words and loaded words. A worked example at the end finds all three in one paragraph. By the end you will be able to match diction and register to an audience. To choose concrete and precise words. To tell commonly confused words apart. And to avoid biased language and revise a draft's diction.

Five entries on diction: fitting words to the reader, connotation, register, jargon and slang.

Choosing words for readers.

CMP 0226 Diction

Diction is word choice, and good diction fits the audience, the purpose and the genre. The same idea can be stated in words a specialist would use or in words a general reader would understand; the right choice depends on who is reading. Revision questions about wording usually ask which word is most precise and most appropriate, not which sounds most impressive.

Meaning and feeling.

CMP 0227 Denotation and Connotation

A word's denotation is its dictionary meaning; its connotation is the feeling or association it carries. Small, cramped and cozy can describe the same room, but cramped carries a negative connotation and cozy a positive one. A word with the right denotation and the wrong connotation can quietly change a writer's tone or claim.

The level of formality.

CMP 0228 Formal and Informal Register

Register is the level of formality in a piece of writing, and academic writing generally calls for a formal register. "The results were awesome" is informal; "The results exceeded expectations" fits an academic report. Formal does not mean stiff or wordy; it means precise and free of casual shortcuts.

Words for experts.

CMP 0229 Jargon

Technical expressions let experts communicate efficiently, but they confuse readers outside the field. For general readers, replace or define specialized terms; legal and business writing have moved toward plain English for this reason. Jargon used to sound expert, rather than to be exact, makes writing harder to read without making it more accurate.

Casual group language.

CMP 0230 Slang

Slang is informal language that groups develop to express ideas quickly, and it is generally too casual for academic writing. Slang can suit a personal essay, but in a research paper or report it signals the wrong register and may confuse readers outside the group. Avoid slang your readers are unlikely to understand, even in informal genres.

Two entries on concrete and descriptive words.

Words readers can picture.

CMP 0231 Concrete and Specific Words

Concrete words name things readers can see or touch; abstract words name ideas. "The artist used many colors" is vague; "The artist used blues and greens alongside reds" lets readers picture it. Abstract words are sometimes necessary, but a passage built only of them loses readers; anchor ideas in specifics.

Precise description.

CMP 0232 Descriptive Diction

Descriptive diction uses precise, concrete language that lets readers visualize what the writer describes. Precise names, such as teal or navy instead of blue, carry more meaning than a string of adjectives. Precision beats quantity: one exact word does more work than three general ones strung together.

Seven entries on words writers confuse, and a rule for preferring plain words.

Words that sound alike.

CMP 0233 Homonyms and Homophones

Homophones are words that sound alike but differ in spelling and meaning, and they cause many of the commonest word errors. Homonyms share sound and spelling, such as a band of musicians and a band on the wrist; homophones, such as there, their and they're, differ in spelling. Spell-checkers accept homophones, so you must check them yourself.

A verb and a noun.

CMP 0234 Affect and Effect

In most uses, affect is a verb meaning to produce a change in, and effect is a noun meaning a result. "The new rule affected every student, but it had little effect on attendance." Test by substituting result: if result fits, the word is effect.

Two more pairs.

CMP 0235 Accept, Except; Than, Then

Accept means to receive willingly, while except means excluding; than compares, while then marks time. "She accepted every gift except mine"; "He is older than his brother, and then he left." Then in a comparison, as in "better then before," is a common slip that changes the meaning.

Certainty and insurance.

CMP 0236 Ensure and Insure

Ensure means to make certain, and insure means to protect against financial loss with insurance. "Careful checks ensure accuracy"; "The company insured the building against fire." The two sound alike, and spell-checkers accept both. In most academic writing, the word you want is ensure, unless the sentence is really about insurance.

Counting and amounts.

CMP 0237 Fewer and Less

Fewer refers to things that can be counted; less refers to amounts that cannot be counted. "I have fewer assignments than my roommate, and she has less time than I do." Ask whether you could put a number before the noun; if so, use fewer.

Suggesting and concluding.

CMP 0238 Imply and Infer

To imply is to suggest something without saying it; to infer is to conclude something from evidence. "Your email implies you are upset, and I infer from it that the meeting went badly." Writers and speakers imply; readers and listeners infer. The two are not interchangeable, and rhetorical analysis uses both often.

Plain words first.

CMP 0239 Plain, Exact Words

As a general rule, use plain, direct words, and avoid reaching for a word because it sounds impressive. If a word is only vaguely familiar, look it up before using it; a wrong fancy word costs more credibility than a right plain one. Keep a list of words you often confuse and search your drafts for them.

Six entries on biased and inclusive language, choosing and revising words, and tone, ending with a worked example. The opening idea is paid off at the last.

Language that excludes.

CMP 0240 Biased Language

Biased language excludes or demeans people on the basis of traits such as gender, age, ethnicity, class or disability. Gendered terms such as mankind, chairman and fireman are commonly replaced by humanity, chair and firefighter. Biased wording weakens an argument by signaling unfairness to readers, whatever the writer intended.

Language that includes.

CMP 0241 Inclusive Language

Inclusive language puts people first and avoids labels and stereotypes about whole groups. "A person who uses a wheelchair" is preferred to "wheelchair-bound"; claims such as "teenagers are rebellious" stereotype a group. Generalizations about groups are both biased and weak evidence; specifics serve better on both counts.

Meaning, feeling, audience.

CMP 0242 Choosing the Precise Word

Choosing the precise word means testing each candidate against meaning, connotation and audience. State what the sentence must say. Check the denotation, then the connotation, then the register. Make sure it is not a confused look-alike, and prefer the plain, concrete word that does all this. To describe a cut in funding, reduced is neutral, slashed adds alarm, and trimmed suggests the cut was minor. The most tempting wrong choice is usually a near-synonym with the wrong connotation, such as stubborn where the writer means determined.

A pass for words alone.

CMP 0243 Revising for Diction

Revising for diction means rereading a draft only for its words, after its structure and sentences are settled. Search for your personal list of confusions. Replace vague words such as thing, stuff, very and a lot with specific ones. Mark slang that does not fit the register, define or replace technical terms, and check for biased language. Then read for connotation, so each charged word reflects the attitude you intend. Diction revision can overshoot: replacing plain words with longer ones to sound academic makes prose harder to read.

One word, a new tone.

CMP 0244 Words That Shift Tone

A single charged word can shift the tone of an otherwise neutral passage. "The council approved the plan" is neutral; "The council finally caved and approved the plan" makes the writer's opinion visible. In an objective report, such words undercut credibility; in an argument, they must be earned by evidence.

Three kinds of word error.

CMP 0245 A Paragraph of Wrong Words

A worked example, constructed for this course, pays off the opening idea. A report on bike lanes says they had a positive affect on traffic, that less accidents occurred, that their was alot of stuff that improved, and that older people felt safer then before. The wrong words are fixed: effect, fewer, there, a lot, than. The empty phrase, a lot of stuff, is replaced with named improvements. A clause calling older people bad drivers is a stereotype and is cut. Stubborn becomes persistent, since the report means the supporters held their position. Fixing only the confused pairs would leave the paragraph biased and vague; a full pass checks for all three kinds.

Look at what you can now do. You can match diction and register to an audience, and define or replace jargon and slang. You can choose concrete, specific words that let readers picture what you mean. You can tell homophones and commonly confused pairs apart, from affect and effect to imply and infer. And you can use inclusive language and revise a draft's words for meaning, feeling and tone. That completes the conventions of standard written English. Unit Eleven begins revision, with clear and effective sentences.